Journal: Frontiers in Immunology

Article Title: Saccharomyces boulardii reduces food intake and attenuates weight gain in diet-induced obese mice: links to gut microbial, metabolic, and immune remodeling

doi: 10.3389/fimmu.2026.1925200

Figure Lengend Snippet: S. boulardii alters energy balance and attenuates weight gain in mice with DIO. (A) Study design; Male C57BL/6 mice with DIO (8 weeks) received oral PBS or S. boulardii while maintained on a high-fat diet (HFD; 60% kcal fat) for 7 weeks. (B) Cumulative food intake (g) over 40 days, measured weekly. (C) Mean daily food intake (g/day). (D) Hourly respiratory exchange ratio (RER; VCO 2 /VO 2 ) over a 2-day period under a 12:12 light–dark cycle. (E) Mean RER during light and dark phases. (F) Hourly energy expenditure (EE; kcal/h) over a 2-day period under a 12:12 light–dark cycle. (G) Mean EE during light and dark phases. (H) Body weight gain (%) over 40 days, measured twice weekly. (I) Body weight at endpoint (g). (J) Liver weight (g/g) and (K) total cecal weight (g/g) normalized to body weight. (L) Colon length (cm) at endpoint. (M) Log 10 colony-forming unities of S. boulardii per gram of feces. Data are mean ± SEM (n = 9). Statistical analyses were performed using a linear mixed-effects model fitted with lmer (REML = FALSE), including Group, Day/Hour, and their interaction as fixed effects and mouse as a random intercept. Fixed effects were evaluated using Type III ANOVA for panels (B, D, F, H) ; two-tailed Student’s t-test for panels (C, E, I–L) ; and analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) for panel G, with treatment as a fixed factor and body mass as a continuous covariate, with the light and dark phases analyzed separately. * P < 0.05, ** P < 0.01, *** P < 0.001.

Article Snippet: Cryopreserved S. boulardii (ATCC MYA-796 ura3 Δ ( ) was streaked on yeast extract peptone dextrose (YPD) agar and incubated to obtain single colonies.

Techniques: Two Tailed Test, Analysis

Journal: Frontiers in Immunology

Article Title: Saccharomyces boulardii reduces food intake and attenuates weight gain in diet-induced obese mice: links to gut microbial, metabolic, and immune remodeling

doi: 10.3389/fimmu.2026.1925200

Figure Lengend Snippet: Gut microbiome composition following S. boulardii treatment in diet-induced obese mice (DIO). (A) Alpha diversity metrics including observed richness, Berger–Parker dominance, and Shannon diversity index in PBS- and S. boulardii –treated mice. (B) Relative abundance of microbial phyla in PBS- and S. boulardii –treated mice. (C) Principal coordinate analysis (PCoA) of beta diversity based on Bray–Curtis dissimilarity. Each point represents an individual mouse. Statistical significance was assessed using PERMANOVA. (D) Differentially abundant microbial species identified using linear discriminant analysis effect size (LEfSe), displayed as LDA scores indicating enrichment in PBS- or S. boulardii –treated groups. Group differences were assessed using two-sided Kruskal–Wallis and Wilcoxon rank-sum tests with Benjamini–Hochberg false discovery rate (FDR) correction ( P < 0.05). Taxa with LDA scores > 2.0 were considered enriched.

Article Snippet: Cryopreserved S. boulardii (ATCC MYA-796 ura3 Δ ( ) was streaked on yeast extract peptone dextrose (YPD) agar and incubated to obtain single colonies.

Techniques: Microbiome, Analysis

Journal: Frontiers in Immunology

Article Title: Saccharomyces boulardii reduces food intake and attenuates weight gain in diet-induced obese mice: links to gut microbial, metabolic, and immune remodeling

doi: 10.3389/fimmu.2026.1925200

Figure Lengend Snippet: Functional metagenomic and cecal metabolomic profiling following S. boulardii treatment in diet-induced obese (DIO) mice. (A) Principal coordinate analysis (PCoA) of predicted microbial pathway profiles. Statistical significance was assessed using PERMANOVA. (B) Differentially enriched microbial pathways identified using linear discriminant analysis effect size (LEfSe), displayed as LDA scores indicating enrichment in PBS- or S. boulardii –treated mice. Group differences were tested using two-sided Kruskal–Wallis and Wilcoxon rank-sum tests with Benjamini–Hochberg false discovery rate (FDR) correction ( P < 0.05); pathways with LDA > 2.0 were considered enriched. (C) UpSet plot showing pathway presence–absence relationships derived from HUMAnN3 MetaCyc annotations, indicating the number of pathways shared between or unique to treatment groups. Bar heights represent intersection sizes, and horizontal bars indicate total pathway counts per group. (D) Principal component analysis (PCA) of cecal metabolomic profiles. Percentage of variance explained by each principal component is indicated; statistical significance was assessed using PERMANOVA. (E) Volcano plot of cecal metabolites showing log 2 fold change in S. boulardii –treated mice relative to PBS-treated controls versus −log 10 FDR-adjusted P values. Differential abundance was defined as |log 2 fold change| ≥ 0.5 and FDR-adjusted P < 0.1.

Article Snippet: Cryopreserved S. boulardii (ATCC MYA-796 ura3 Δ ( ) was streaked on yeast extract peptone dextrose (YPD) agar and incubated to obtain single colonies.

Techniques: Functional Assay, Metabolomic, Profiling, Analysis, Derivative Assay

Journal: Frontiers in Immunology

Article Title: Saccharomyces boulardii reduces food intake and attenuates weight gain in diet-induced obese mice: links to gut microbial, metabolic, and immune remodeling

doi: 10.3389/fimmu.2026.1925200

Figure Lengend Snippet: Colonic RNA-sequencing reveals pathway-level transcriptional remodeling following S. boulardii treatment. (A) Volcano plot of colonic gene expression derived from DESeq2 analysis showing S. boulardii –treated log 2 fold change relative to PBS-treated mice versus −log 10 false discovery rate (FDR)–adjusted p-values. Differential expression was defined as |log 2 fold change| ≥ 0.5 and FDR-adjusted P < 0.1. (B) Gene set enrichment analysis (GSEA) of MSigDB Hallmark pathways performed on ranked gene lists. Normalized enrichment scores (NES) are shown for pathways significantly enriched at FDR-adjusted P < 0.05. Dot size reflects gene set size. Positively enriched pathways indicate relative upregulation, and negatively enriched pathways indicate relative downregulation in S. boulardi i–treated mice compared with controls.

Article Snippet: Cryopreserved S. boulardii (ATCC MYA-796 ura3 Δ ( ) was streaked on yeast extract peptone dextrose (YPD) agar and incubated to obtain single colonies.

Techniques: RNA Sequencing, Gene Expression, Derivative Assay, Analysis, Quantitative Proteomics

Journal: Frontiers in Immunology

Article Title: Saccharomyces boulardii reduces food intake and attenuates weight gain in diet-induced obese mice: links to gut microbial, metabolic, and immune remodeling

doi: 10.3389/fimmu.2026.1925200

Figure Lengend Snippet: Portal cytokine and hormone profiles following S. boulardii treatment in diet-induced obesity mice (DIO). (A) Fasting portal vein concentrations (pg/mL) of metabolic hormones, including ghrelin, GLP-1, glucagon, insulin, leptin, and PYY. (B) Principal component analysis (PCA) of cytokine profiles. Percentage of variance explained by each principal component is indicated; statistical significance was assessed using PERMANOVA. (C) Volcano plot of fasting portal vein cytokines showing S. boulardii –treated log 2 fold change relative to PBS-treated mice versus –log 10 false discovery rate (FDR)–adjusted p-values. Differential abundance was defined as |log 2 fold change| ≥ 0.5 and FDR-adjusted P < 0.1. (D) Fasting portal vein concentrations (pg/mL) of IL-6. (E) Fasting portal vein concentrations (pg/mL) of selected cytokines, including IL-6, CXCL1, CXCL2, CCL22, CSF3, IL-22 and IL-17A. Data are presented as mean ± SEM (n = 9). Statistical significance was assessed using the Wilcoxon rank-sum (Mann–Whitney U) test, with multiple testing correction applied using the Benjamini–Hochberg false discovery rate. * P < 0.05.

Article Snippet: Cryopreserved S. boulardii (ATCC MYA-796 ura3 Δ ( ) was streaked on yeast extract peptone dextrose (YPD) agar and incubated to obtain single colonies.

Techniques: Analysis, MANN-WHITNEY

Journal: Frontiers in Immunology

Article Title: Saccharomyces boulardii reduces food intake and attenuates weight gain in diet-induced obese mice: links to gut microbial, metabolic, and immune remodeling

doi: 10.3389/fimmu.2026.1925200

Figure Lengend Snippet: Integrated multi-omics analysis reveals coordinated cross-layer signatures associated with S. boulardii treatment. (A) DIABLO component score plots for individual data blocks (metabolomics, microbial pathways, physiological variables, proteomics (Olink), RNA-seq, and taxa) showing separation between PBS- and S. boulardii –treated mice along component 1 and component 2. Ellipses represent 95% confidence intervals. (B) Pairwise agreement (absolute correlation, |r|) between component 1 scores across data blocks. Color intensity reflects correlation strength. (C) Network representation of DIABLO-selected features (|ρ| ≥ 0.65) across omics layers. Nodes represent selected features colored by data type (metabolomics, pathways, physiological, proteomics, RNA-seq, taxa). Edge color indicates direction of correlation (red, positive; blue, negative), and edge thickness reflects correlation strength. Node size corresponds to degree (number of connections). (D) Boxplots of representative DIABLO-selected hub features across treatment groups. Data are shown as individual points with median and interquartile range.

Article Snippet: Cryopreserved S. boulardii (ATCC MYA-796 ura3 Δ ( ) was streaked on yeast extract peptone dextrose (YPD) agar and incubated to obtain single colonies.

Techniques: Biomarker Discovery, Analysis, RNA Sequencing