Journal: iScience

Article Title: GAL and F2R as immune diagnostic biomarkers for fetal growth restriction

doi: 10.1016/j.isci.2026.115228

Figure Lengend Snippet: Targeted additional analysis of the three key IR-DEGs (A) Chromosomal positions of the key IR-DEGs are presented. (B) A PCA plot illustrates the distribution of samples based on the expression profiles of the 3 key IR-DEGs. The x axis and y axis correspond to the first two principal components (PC1 and PC2), respectively, and the percentage of total variance explained by each component is indicated in parentheses adjacent to the axis labels. (C) Comparative expression levels of three crucial IR-DEGs in FGR, which integrates datasets GSE24129 , GSE100415 , and GSE147776 . (D) ROC curves were used to validate the efficacy of three crucial IR-DEGs in predicting FGR, quantifying the diagnostic performance of each gene for FGR identification. (E) A nomogram for predicting the risk of FGR is constructed based on three IR-DEGs, specifically F2R, GAL, and CXCL10. For each of these genes, a corresponding point value is assigned according to its expression level; the total point score is calculated by summing the individual gene points, and this total score is further converted to the predicted risk of developing FGR. (F) A calibration curve for the nomogram is shown, comparing the nomogram-predicted risk of FGR ( x axis) with the actually observed risk ( y axis). The diagonal line represents an ideal prediction scenario where predicted and observed risks are identical. The dashed line (“Apparent”) denotes the model’s performance before bias correction, while the solid line (“Bias-corrected”) represents performance after bias correction.

Article Snippet: IHC staining was performed according to previously established protocols using primary antibodies against GAL (Bioss, Beijing, China, catalog number: bs-0017M, RRID: AB_10855141) and F2R (Bioss, Beijing, China, catalog number: bs-0828R, RRID: AB_10857704).

Techniques: Expressing, Diagnostic Assay, Construct

Journal: iScience

Article Title: GAL and F2R as immune diagnostic biomarkers for fetal growth restriction

doi: 10.1016/j.isci.2026.115228

Figure Lengend Snippet: An evaluation focusing on immune infiltration related to two IR-DEGs (A) Stacked bar plot showing the relative abundance of 22 immune cell subtype proportions between FGR and AGA samples. (B) A boxplot is employed to visualize the differentiation in ratios of 22 immune cell types, with a specific focus on comparisons between FGR and AGA. (C) A Spearman correlation network is constructed to illustrate the correlative relationships between two IR-DEGs (namely GAL and F2R) and infiltrating immune cells in FGR. This network visualization explicitly displays how each of the four target IR-DEGs correlates with the 22 types of infiltrating immune cells, facilitating intuitive recognition of positive or negative correlation patterns between the genes and immune cell subsets. (D) Expression levels of F2R are significantly higher in FGR tissues ( n = 11) compared to AGA samples ( n = 25). Data are presented as mean ± SEM. (E) Expression levels of GAL are significantly elevated in FGR tissues ( n = 11) relative to AGA specimens ( n = 25). Data are presented as mean ± SEM. (F) qRT-PCR analysis demonstrates that F2R mRNA expression is significantly upregulated in FGR placental tissues compared to AGA controls ( p = 0.0019). Data are presented as mean ± SEM. (G) qRT-PCR analysis reveals a significant downregulation of GAL mRNA in FGR placental tissues compared to AGA controls ( p = 0.0015). Data are presented as mean ± SEM. Additionally, representative images of IHC staining for F2R and GAL in FGR and AGA patients are presented, illustrating both high and low expression levels of the two genes. All staining images are shown at magnifications of ×40 and ×200, with scale bars clearly indicated for reference. Statistical p values were calculated via the chi-square test, where ∗ p < 0.05 and ∗∗ p < 0.01.

Article Snippet: IHC staining was performed according to previously established protocols using primary antibodies against GAL (Bioss, Beijing, China, catalog number: bs-0017M, RRID: AB_10855141) and F2R (Bioss, Beijing, China, catalog number: bs-0828R, RRID: AB_10857704).

Techniques: Construct, Expressing, Quantitative RT-PCR, Immunohistochemistry, Staining

Journal: eNeuro

Article Title: Galanin Inhibits Histaminergic Neurons via Galanin Receptor 1

doi: 10.1523/ENEURO.0420-25.2026

Figure Lengend Snippet: GALR1 is the dominant galanin receptor subtype expressed in histaminergic neurons. Ai , Representative fluorescent in situ hybridization image of Hdc and Galr1 expression within the posterior hypothalamus showing coexpression of Hdc and Galr1 . Two cells identified by white arrows are shown in higher magnification in Aii , demonstrating the high expression of Galr1 in histaminergic neurons. Aiii , 77.7% of histaminergic neurons expressed Galr1. Bi , Representative fluorescent in situ hybridization image of Hdc and Galr2 expression within the posterior hypothalamus showing almost no coexpression of Hdc and Galr2 . Two cells identified by white arrows are shown in higher magnification in Bii , demonstrating that histaminergic neurons rarely express Galr2 . Biii , 0.3% of histaminergic neurons expressed Galr2 . Ci , Representative fluorescent in situ hybridization image of Hdc and Galr3 expression within the posterior hypothalamus showing minimal coexpression of Hdc and Galr3 . Two cells identified by white arrows are shown in higher magnification in Cii , demonstrating the expression of Galr3 in some histaminergic neurons. Ciii , 32.3% of histaminergic neurons expressed Galr3 ( n = 3 mice for all experiments). Each dot represents an average of two counters for one coronal brain slice.

Article Snippet: Galanin (1–29; rat, mouse) and selective galanin receptor agonists targeting the GALR1, GALR2, and GALR3 (M617, M1145, and Spexin, respectively) were obtained from Tocris (Bio-Techne).

Techniques: In Situ Hybridization, Expressing, Slice Preparation

Journal: eNeuro

Article Title: Galanin Inhibits Histaminergic Neurons via Galanin Receptor 1

doi: 10.1523/ENEURO.0420-25.2026

Figure Lengend Snippet: Galanin receptor 1 agonist (M617)-induced inhibition of histaminergic neurons. Ai , Whole-cell current-clamp recording demonstrating the inhibitory effect of M617 on histaminergic neuron activity, including a return of activity during the wash period (return to aCSF) to levels like that observed in baseline conditions. The small gap in the trace represents the time when current–voltage relationships were performed. Aii , Hyperpolarization of the membrane potential in histaminergic neurons that were inhibited by M617. Aiii , Decrease in the firing rate of histaminergic neurons that were inhibited by M617. Bi , Input resistance decreased in the majority (12/16) of the M617-inhibited histaminergic neurons. Bii , Current–voltage ( I – V ) relationships of a M617-inhibited histaminergic neuron that displayed a decrease in input resistance. Membrane potential changes are in response to successive positive and negative current injections in steps of 34pA. ** p < 0.05 and **** p < 0.0001.

Article Snippet: Galanin (1–29; rat, mouse) and selective galanin receptor agonists targeting the GALR1, GALR2, and GALR3 (M617, M1145, and Spexin, respectively) were obtained from Tocris (Bio-Techne).

Techniques: Inhibition, Activity Assay, Membrane

Journal: eNeuro

Article Title: Galanin Inhibits Histaminergic Neurons via Galanin Receptor 1

doi: 10.1523/ENEURO.0420-25.2026

Figure Lengend Snippet: Blockade of G-protein-coupled inwardly-rectifying potassium channels or calcium-activated potassium channels reduces the galanin 1 receptor-induced inhibition of histaminergic neurons. A , Whole-cell current-clamp recording demonstrating that the galanin receptor 1 agonist M617 did not influence histaminergic neuron activity in the presence of BaCl 2 . B , Whole-cell current-clamp recording demonstrating that the GIRK channel blocker tertiapin-Q reduced the inhibitory effect of M617 on histaminergic neurons. C , Whole-cell current-clamp recording demonstrating that the M617-induced inhibition of histaminergic neurons persisted after the blockade of K ATP channels with tolbutamide. D , Whole-cell current-clamp recording demonstrating that the BK channel blocker TEA reduced the inhibitory effect of M617 on histaminergic neurons. E , Comparisons of the response of histaminergic neurons to M617 in control conditions and after blockade of the different potassium channels tested. F , The M617-induced membrane hyperpolarization of histaminergic neurons was reduced by blockade of GIRK or BK channels. TQ, tertiapin-Q and Tolb, tolbutamide.

Article Snippet: Galanin (1–29; rat, mouse) and selective galanin receptor agonists targeting the GALR1, GALR2, and GALR3 (M617, M1145, and Spexin, respectively) were obtained from Tocris (Bio-Techne).

Techniques: Inhibition, Activity Assay, Control, Membrane

Journal: Biomolecules

Article Title: Galanin Receptors: G Protein-Dependent Signaling and Beyond

doi: 10.3390/biom16020236

Figure Lengend Snippet: Sequence comparison of the three human galanin receptor subtypes (GalR1, GalR2 and GalR3) by Clustal Omega (version 1.2.4) . Identical and similar amino acid residues are indicated by asterisks and colons/dots, respectively. The transmembrane helices (TM) are highlighted in light blue for GalR1 and GalR2 (based on the determined structures [ , , ], https://gpcrdb.org/protein/galr1_human/ and https://gpcrdb.org/protein/galr2_human/ , accessed on 7 December 2025) and in grey for GalR3 (using https://gpcrdb.org/protein/galr3_human/ , accessed on 7 December 2025). The highly conserved Trp toggle switch in TM6, the Tyr toggle switch (NPxxY motif in TM7) and the DRY motif (in TM3) are highlighted in yellow (bold) . Intracellular loop, ICL; extracellular loop, ECL.

Article Snippet: In the Human Protein Atlas, the highest galanin mRNA levels can be found in the pituitary gland, followed by those in the hypothalamus, skin, colon, and appendix ( ).

Techniques: Sequencing, Comparison

Journal: Biomolecules

Article Title: Galanin Receptors: G Protein-Dependent Signaling and Beyond

doi: 10.3390/biom16020236

Figure Lengend Snippet: Distribution of human galanin receptors ( A ) and their agonists ( B ), nTPM values from the Human Protein Atlas ( https://www.proteinatlas.org/ENSG00000166573-GALR1 ; https://www.proteinatlas.org/ENSG00000182687-GALR2 ; https://www.proteinatlas.org/ENSG00000128310-GALR3 ; https://www.proteinatlas.org/ENSG00000069482-GAL ; https://www.proteinatlas.org/ENSG00000197487-GALP ; https://www.proteinatlas.org/ENSG00000134548-SPX , all websites accessed on 21 November 2025).

Article Snippet: In the Human Protein Atlas, the highest galanin mRNA levels can be found in the pituitary gland, followed by those in the hypothalamus, skin, colon, and appendix ( ).

Techniques:

Journal: Biomolecules

Article Title: Galanin Receptors: G Protein-Dependent Signaling and Beyond

doi: 10.3390/biom16020236

Figure Lengend Snippet: Sequence comparison of the peptide agonists in the human galaninergic system by Clustal Omega (version 1.2.4) . Critical residues of endogenous agonists in galanin receptor binding as determined by alanine scanning mutagenesis and cryo-EM are shown in red. The first amino acid residue of galanin/GALP and spexin is highlighted in yellow and green, respectively. Residues of spexin involved in the ligand selectivity are shown in blue.

Article Snippet: In the Human Protein Atlas, the highest galanin mRNA levels can be found in the pituitary gland, followed by those in the hypothalamus, skin, colon, and appendix ( ).

Techniques: Sequencing, Comparison, Binding Assay, Mutagenesis, Cryo-EM Sample Prep, Residue

Journal: Biomolecules

Article Title: Galanin Receptors: G Protein-Dependent Signaling and Beyond

doi: 10.3390/biom16020236

Figure Lengend Snippet: Structure of galanin- and spexin-bound GalR2 (7XJK and 7XJL) . Galanin and spexin are highlighted in red and light blue, respectively. Tyr9 of the agonists is labeled. The GalR2 receptor is displayed in cartoon representation and color-coded from the N- to the C-terminus (blue to red) to facilitate identification of transmembrane helices and extracellular and intracellular loop regions.

Article Snippet: In the Human Protein Atlas, the highest galanin mRNA levels can be found in the pituitary gland, followed by those in the hypothalamus, skin, colon, and appendix ( ).

Techniques: Labeling

Journal: Biomolecules

Article Title: Galanin Receptors: G Protein-Dependent Signaling and Beyond

doi: 10.3390/biom16020236

Figure Lengend Snippet: Signaling pathways for galanin receptors. ↓: decrease, ↑: increase, ?: not known. Abbreviations: cyclic adenosine 3,5-monophosphate (cAMP); extracellular signal-regulated kinase1/2 (ERK1/2); G protein–gated inwardly rectifying potassium channel, GIRK; large-conductance Ca 2+ -activated K + channel (BK); L-type voltage-dependent Ca 2+ channel (VDCC); mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK); phosphatidylinositol 3-kinases (PI3K); protein kinase A (PKA); protein kinase B (PKB). Created in BioRender. Turu, G. (2026) https://BioRender.com/8fpgv12 .

Article Snippet: In the Human Protein Atlas, the highest galanin mRNA levels can be found in the pituitary gland, followed by those in the hypothalamus, skin, colon, and appendix ( ).

Techniques: Protein-Protein interactions

Journal: Biomolecules

Article Title: Galanin Receptors: G Protein-Dependent Signaling and Beyond

doi: 10.3390/biom16020236

Figure Lengend Snippet: Distribution of human galanin receptors, β-arrestin1 (ARRB1) and β-arrestin2 (ARRB2) in the brain of AD patients. For each gene panel, expression values were rescaled independently, and color intensity reflects relative expression within that panel. Dot color shows globally scaled mean gene expression; dot size represents the percentage of cells expressing each gene in a given cell type. White denotes no detectable expression. Data are based on the AD brain single-cell RNA-seq dataset ( https://cellxgene.cziscience.com/gene-expression , accessed on 17 November 2025). As the dataset integrates expression data from multiple sources, some cell-type labels partially overlap .

Article Snippet: In the Human Protein Atlas, the highest galanin mRNA levels can be found in the pituitary gland, followed by those in the hypothalamus, skin, colon, and appendix ( ).

Techniques: Expressing, Gene Expression, Single Cell, RNA Sequencing